Skip Navigation LinksMinerals, vitamins and feed additives

Mineral feed contains minerals, vitamins and feed additives

Mineral feed means complementary feed containing at least 40 % crude ash (Regulation (EC) No 767/2009 - concerning marketing of feed materials and compound feed). Mineral feed supplements are characterised by always providing minerals, often also vitamins and in many cases as well some feed additives to the animals.

The content of minerals and vitamins given with mineral feed supplements is meant for covering the gap between the animals' nutritive needs and the intake with the basic feed ration. The mineral feed supplementation shall enable the animal to maintain a normal physiological status of the minerals and vitamins in body tissies, required for maintenance (basic body functions), production (milk and meat etc.), foetus growth, and fertility (the reproduction ability of the animal).

Feed additives are products used in animal nutrition for purposes of improving the quality of feed and the quality of food from animal origin, or to improve the animals’ performance and health, e.g. providing enhanced digestibility of the feed materials. Feed additives are in EU regulated by The Feed Additives Regulation (EC) No 1831/2003.

The following topics offer the opportunity to deepen your knowledge of minerals, vitamins and feed additives.

Generally about minerals Metabolic importance and deficiency symptoms of minerals Vitamins and their role Feed additives

Generally about minerals

They are important for physiological functions as metabolism, reproduction, motoric functions and senses.
They have no nutritive value (energy, protein, fat, carbon hydrate).
They are needed in relatively small amounts.
Deficiencies leads to characteristic symptoms.
Deficiency can be caused by too low intake of the specific mineral itself, by excess amounts of other minerals in the ration, or by other factors that depress the bio-availability of the mineral.
Too high intake leads to toxic reactions or to deficiency of other minerals.
It is relatively cheap to balance the rations with minerals.
The importance of correct balancing of rations with minerals is growing with increasing productivity.

Mikro - macro?

Minerals are divided into macro and microminerals:

Macrominerals are those that the animals need the most, expressed in grams per day.
Microminerals or trace elements are essential for the animals, but are required in relatively small quantities, often expressed in milligrams per day.

It is generally considered that 7 macro minerals (Ca, P, Mg, K, Cl, Na and S) and 8 trace elements (Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, Co, I, Se, and Mo) are important in livestock feeding. Except from those mentioned, there are 7 other trace elements (for instance Si, V, Cr and F) that have a theoretical physiological importance, but no practical importance.

The use of some of the macro and microminerals that are essential in animal nutrition, are subject to regulation in EU. This includes the following examples:

Five of the minerals that are essential in livestock nutrition have been defined as Critical Raw Materials (CRM) by the EU (EU Communication 2020/474), namely Phosphorus (including Phosphate Rock), Magnesium, Manganese, Cobalt and Cupper. CRM's are associated with high supply risks and high economic importantce, and the EU is therefore taking measures to use these materials more efficienct, and to recycle where possible. This means for livestock nutrition feeding standards a paradigm shift to a minimum supply via the use of mineral sources with high availablity.
Microminerals that are essential in livestock nutrition, including Zinc, Selenium, Cupper and Cobolt are hevy metals or other types of soil polluters. They have hazardous effects on nature and health, and it should be avoided to give them in excess amounts to the animals, whereby they via the use of manure as fertiliser is contaminating the soils where the manure is spread. The EU is in different ways taking measures to reduce the present high contamination of European soils with heavy metals and Selenium - see for instance EU Regulation 1334/2003 concerning additives in feedingstuffs belonging to the group of trace elements.

Example of mineral content in the animal body

The nutritional needs for mineral intake is related to the appearance of the minerals in the body. A normal appearance of minerals in the body of a 600 kilo heavy cow is:

Ca: 9,000 gram
P: 4,860 gram
K: 1,100 gram
Na: 870 gram
Cl: 510 gram
S: 900 gram
Mg: 282 gram
Fe: 24 gram
Zn: 18 gram
Cu: 1.2 gram
J: 0.24 gram

The different minerals will all together normally constitute 4-5% of the body weight; whereof Ca alone counts for around 1% of the body weight. The weight of the skeleton is normally around 15% of the body weight, as it except from minerals also contains different tissues, for instance veins.

Magnesium is special in the way that the nutritional requirement is relatively high compared to the amount in the body; the reason is that the bio-availability for magnesium typically is very low.

Metabolic importance and deficiency symptoms of minerals

Macrominerals

Ca - Calcium

Metabolic importance

Calcium is the most predominant mineral as it constitutes around 1% of the body weight of domestic animals. Calcium is important for the development of bones and teeth, for the coagulation of blood, for the energy supply to muscles (together with Mg), and for the function of the nervous system.

Deficiency symptoms

Rickets in young animals (insufficient bone development)
Osteomalaci in adult animals; a generalized demineralization of bone leading to depressed feed intake, gain and production
Osteoporosis - a metabolic disorder leading to decalcification of the bones with a high incidence of fractures
Milk fever - acute hypocalcemia just after calving

P - Phosphorus

Metabolic importance

70-80% of the content of phosphorus in the body is found in bones and teeth, where phosphorus constitute 16% of the total ash in a relatively constant ratio to calcium of 1:2 (P:Ca). Phosphorus has more known physiological functions than any other mineral element in the animal body. Phosphorus has except from being important for the bones and teeth for instance also a role in practically all energy exchange in the cells.

Deficiency symptoms

Rickets in young animals (insufficient bone development)
Fragile bones
Stiff joints
Lameness
Bone fractions
Depressed appetite
Depressed gain
Animals eat "strange" things as stones, waste, wood, etc.

Mg - Magnesium

Metabolic importance

Around 70% of the magnesium in the animal body is found in the bones, whereof one third is bound to proteins (albumine and globuline). Many enzymatic systems are dependent on magnesium, here under those which are involved in the production of energy in the muscle cells.

Deficiency symptoms

Grass tetany.

Na - Sodium

Metabolic importance

Around 45% of the sodium in the animal body is found in the body fluids. Sodium has here especially a role in the maintenance of the osmotic pressure in the body.

Deficiency symptoms

Lower gain.
Depressed fertility.

Cl - Chlorine

Metabolic importance

Chlorine is the anion that is found in largest concentration in the body fluids. Chlorine is passively following the catione sodium. Chlorine is like sodium important for the osmitic pressure in the body, but also for the acid-base balance.

Deficiency symptoms

Seldom, but can be:

Alcalosis.

K - Potassium

Metabolic importance

Around 89% of the amount of potassium in the animal body is found in the body fluids. Potassium is important for a number of enzyme systems involved in the carbo hydrate metabolism. Potassium regulates together with sodium the osmotic pressure in the body.

Deficiency symptoms

Symptoms of deficiencies are seldom, but can be:

Lameness at calves.

S - Sulfur

Metabolic importance

Sulfur is a part of a number of amino acids, for instance methionine, which are produced by the bacteria in the rumen.

Deficiency symptoms

Microminerals / trace elements

Fe - Iron

Metabolic importance

Important part of the red blood cells, the hemoglobine.

Deficiency symptoms

Anemia
Immune suppression
Decreased calf weight and gain

Cu - Copper

Metabolic importance

Important co-factor of aroun'd 30 enzyme systems.

Deficiency symptoms

Decreased hair growth and changes in the hair color (rough, dull hair coat).
Depressed gain.
Sudden deaths.
Un-coordinated movements.
Errors in the bone development.
Depressed appetite.
Weak borne calves.
Depressed function of the intestines.
Increased incidence of diarrea.
Anemia and liver damages.
Immune suppression (failure to respond to vaccination).

Deficiencies can be caused by elevated levels of the natural copper antagonist molybdenum as well as dietary sulfur levels above 0.35%.

Zn - Zinc

Metabolic importance

Is important for the growth of germinal and somatic cells.

Deficiency symptoms

Anorexia and weight losses (notably in calves)
Connective tissue degeneration (hoof integrity and horn development)
Parakeratosis
Depressed healing of wounds
Early embryo death
Bull reproductive failure (especially young, developing bulls)

Mn - Manganese

Metabolic importance

Is important for bone development and for the reproduction.

Deficiency symptoms

Abnormalities in the bone development
Reduced growth rate
Depressed reproduction

Co - Cobalt

Metabolic importance

Building stone in Vitamin B12, which again is important for the intermediary metabolism.

Deficiency symptoms

Long haired animals
Listlessness and diarrhea
Loss of appetite leading to weight loss
Anemia

Se - Selenium

Metabolic importance

Selenium was discovered as an essential nutrient in 1957, though it was not discovered what role it played in the body until 1973. The discovery of Se in glutathione peroxidase was the key to understanding its importance in nutrition and health. Glutathione peroxidase, or GSH-Px, is essential for protecting cellular membranes from being destroyed.

Compounds called free radicals are highly reactive molecules, and if left unchecked will destroy cellular membranes. Vitamin E and GSH-Px are two molecules that help prevent this damage. Vitamin E prevents the dangerous molecules (peroxides) from being formed, but even with adequate vitamin E, some peroxides evade destruction. GSH-Px destroys the peroxides before they have a chance to cause membrane damage. GSH-Px concentration and activity is directly related to the selenium status of the animal. Selenium and vitamin E are both antioxidants because they both protect the membranes from oxidative damage. Due to this shared duty, there is a relationship between the compounds, in which one can substitute for the other in a very small way. For instance, more Se is needed when an animal's vitamin E concentrations are low. The sparing effect is an extension of this idea of substitution. Selenium spares vitamin E by:

preserving pancreas integrity for normal fat digestion, thus normal vitamin E absorption
reducing the amount of vitamin E needed to maintain lipid membranes via GSH-Px
aiding in the retention of vitamin E in the blood

Vitamin E spares Se by:

maintaining body Se in an active form and prevents loss from the body
preventing destruction of membrane lipids from within the membrane, which inhibits the production of hydroperoxides and decreases the amount of GSH-Px needed

Selenium has also been recently found in another enzyme, 5'-deiodinase. 5'-deiodinase is an enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of the inactive form of thyroxine to the active form. Thyroxine is a very important hormone from the thyroid that helps in regulating body temperature, metabolism, reproduction, circulation, and muscle function. It is known that Se protects the body from heavy metals such as cadmium, mercury, and silver by forming unreactive complexes with them. There are theories that Se may be involved in many other functions in the body, such as-

a selenoprotein in sperm
in RNA
role in prostaglandin synthesis
role in essential fatty acid metabolism
required for normal immune response

Elemental selenium (Se (0)) can be reacted upon in several ways: it can be reduced to a Se(-2), called selenide, or it can be oxidized to a (+4) state, selenite, or a (+6) state, selenate. Selenium is very similar to sulfur in its chemical properties; it is therefore, not surprising that the main form of organic Se in the body is as selenomethionine and selenocystine. Methionine and cystine are sulfur-containing amino acids, the Se can replace the sulfur because of its chemical similarities to sulfur.

There is not a lot of information on the absorption and pathway of Se from the gastrointestinal tract. It is known that it is absorbed mostly from the upper small intestine; there is no absorption from the stomach, rumen, or abomasum. The amount absorbed depends on the chemical form in which it is ingested. There does not seem to be any feedback loop to reduce the amount absorption efficiency; it has been shown, in rats, that 95% of dietary Se was absorbed regardless if fed deficient or toxic amounts. Absorbed Se travels in the plasma on a protein to its destination tissue. Tissue concentrations vary, the kidneys retain a large amount of Se, along with cardiac and skeletal muscle, and the liver. It is deposited more readily when it is in an organic form. Selenium is readily transferable through the placenta, the mammary barrier, and from hen to egg, so the animal's status will affect offspring and milk concentrations. The primary routes of excretion are through the urine and the feces, exhalation of Se only occurs in cases of toxicity. It has been found that the microorganisms in the rumen may convert Se into insoluble compounds, causing the ruminant animal to have a lower absorption efficiency than its monogastric counterpart. It has also been suggested that more Se is absorbed when administered with a high-protein diet, the reasons have not been confirmed.

Deficiency symptoms

Muscle degeneration (white muscle disease - WMD)
Reproductive failure
Immune suppression

I - Iodine

Metabolic importance

Iodine is a basic component in forming the thyroid hormones thyroxine and mono-, di- and triiodothryronine in the thyroid gland. Is said to be the mineral element that throughout the World is most deficient for grazing cattle.

Deficiency symptoms

Enlarged thyroid gland (goiter).
Reproduction disorders.
Depressed gain and milk production.
Stillborn, weak, and/or hairless calves.

Mo - Molybdenum

Metabolic importance

Molybdenum is important as a contributing factor to the function of several enzyme systems, e.g. in the conversion of purines.

Deficiency symptoms

Vitamins and their role

Generally on vitamins

Vitamins is a class of essential nutrients that cannot be synthesized (either at all or in sufficient quantities) by a given organism and must be taken (in trace quantities) with feed for that organism's continued good health. Monogastric animals require that 13 different vitamins are supplemented with the feed. Ruminants kept on stable has especially a need to be supplemented with A, D and E vitamins, although high yielding dairy cows in some circumstances reacts positive on supplementation with other vitamins as well. The term vitamin is not used for other classes of essential nutrients including dietary minerals, essential fatty acids or essential amino acids. Vitamins are divided into fat soluble (Lipophile) and water-soluble (Hydrophile) vitamins.

Names

The name "vitamin" was coined by the Polish biochemist Kazimierz Funk in 1912. Vita in Latin is life and the -amin suffix is short for amine; at the time it was thought that all vitamins were amines. Though this is now known to be incorrect, the name has stuck.

Some vitamin names have become obsolete:

Vitamin B – actually a complex of several vitamins: B-number, H, and M.
Vitamin G – another name for riboflavin (vitamin B₂ )

The usage of names in the format "vitamin letter" and "vitamin letter number" is diminishing. This is especially true for vitamins H, M, B₁, B₂, B₃, and B₅, which are usually called by their proper chemical names.

On the other hand, vitamins D and E are still usually called by their symbolic names, and A and K don't even have proper chemical names (since they are mixtures of chemicals).

The names ascorbic acid and vitamin C are used with similar frequency.

Vitamins were first recognised by the diseases that occur from a lack of certain foods; for example, the British Royal Navy's observation that limes were effective in preventing scurvy led to the discovery of vitamin C.

Vitamins can be divided in two groups by their solubility in water:

Fat-soluble vitamins:

Retinol and derivatives (vitamin A)
Calciferol (vitamin D)
Tocopherol (vitamin E)
Naphthoquinone and derivatives (vitamin K)

Water-soluble vitamins:

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
Thiamine (vitamin B₁)
Riboflavin (vitamin B₂)
Niacin or nicotinic acid or nicotinamide (vitamin B₃) (also called vitamin P or PP for pellagra prevention)
Pantothenic acid (vitamin B₅)
Pyridoxine or pyridoxamine or pyridoxal (vitamin B₆)
Inositol (vitamin B₈)
PABA (vitamin B₁₀)
Choline (vitamin B₁₁)
Cobalamin (vitamin B₁₂)
Pangamic Acid (vitamin B₁₅)
Biotin (vitamin H)
Folic acid (vitamin M)

Fat-soluble vitamins may be stored in the body and can cause toxicity when taken in excess. Water-soluble vitamins are not stored in the body. Unlike feed, water, and—for aerobic organisms—air, an organism can survive for some time without vitamins, although prolonged vitamin deficit results in a disease state.

Function

The presence of vitamins may be required to absorb other substances from the feed. For example, the mineral calcium is best absorbed in the presence of vitamin D.

Feed additives

Feed additives are substances, often synthetically produced, that require EU approval in order to be marketed in the EU. There are different categories of feed additives, including a number of nutritional feed additives containing trace elements/microminerals or vitamins. The EU maintains a list of feed additives.

Feed additives may not normally be sold and given to animals as pure substances, but only used when mixed with other feed materials. It is natural to allocate feed additives via mineral feeds as the allocation per animal per day, in the same way as other content in mineral feeds, is measured in grams or mg.

Feed additives can be added to mineral feeds for all types of livestock, e.g. for dairy cows in relevant parts of the critical transition period from about 3 weeks before and until about 3 months after calving.

In the following is a non-prioritised list of examples of feed additives:

Rumen Protected Aminoacids (RPA): Milk yields of transition dairy cows are substantially improved by supplementing them with rumen protected amino acids (RPA). Responses on the milk yields are typically in the level of 1.5 - 2.5 kg per cow per day. Methionine and lysine are the most limited amino acids in the dairy cow metabolism and should be supplemented in amounts of about 30 grams and 15 grams per cow per day respectively. Read more here.
Organic microminerals: The term organic trace/microminerals covers manganese, copper and zinc, which are bound to e.g. an amino acid such as methionine. Such trace minerals are also called chelated minerals. The minerals in mineral feed are usually inorganic, for example sulphates or oxides. The downside to this is that their availability is low, typically 20-50 percent. The availability of organic trace minerals is higher, for example 40-80 percent. By using organic microminerals is therefore achieved that the animal's metabolism is provided a higher supply of the micromineral without increasing the content of the mineral in the feed.
Hydroxy microminerals: Hydroxy trace minerals have a crystalized structure with covalent bonds. These bonds explain the high stability in premixes and complete feed, and the low solubility of at neutral pH-levels results in less interaction in the upper gastrointestinal tract. Hydroxy trace minerals are mainly used as a source of copper, zinc and manganese with high bio-availability, which is on the level of that of organic microminerals and in some cases higher.
Natural selenium: The use of natural selenium follows the same logic as the use of organic microminerals, namely that you can increase the animal's absorption of selenium by using a selenium source with a higher availability without increasing the allocated amount of selenium. When selenium is bound to organic material, it will pass more easily through the rumen, the reticulum, the omasum and the abomasum, with the pH of the latter being as low as 2-2.7, and will first be released in the duodenum or small intestine, after which it can be absorbed into the blood. Read more about organic selenium here.
Natural vitamin E: Natural vitamin E is extracted from soybean oil and consists exclusively of d-alpha-tocopherol, which is the vitamin E with high biological value. This means higher absorption efficiency of natural vitamin E and, other things being equal, means a stronger immune system that prevents diseases and is a prerequisite for high performance. Vitamin E and selenium can to some extent compensate for each other; this means that the undersupply of selenium can be compensated for to a certain extent oversupply of vitamin E and vice versa. Read more about vitamin E here.
Beta-carotene: Beta-carotene is a provitamin of vitamin A. It is of particular importance for fertility, including for heat and for egg and embryo survival. Beta-carotene is also a powerful antioxidant and important for immune status and the occurrence of mastitis and other diseases.
Antioxidants: The level of free radicals is extra high during critical periods of the animal's production cycle, and antioxidants can neutralize these. In addition to a good supply of microminerals and vitamins A and E, the ration's antioxidant capacity can also is increased through various plant products with a high antioxidant effect, such as citrus, clover, dill and garlic.
Buffer: Buffer supports a stable digestion by contributing to ensuring a stable pH in the rumen of 6-7. A frequently used buffer is sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃), which is given, for example preventively with 100 to 300 grams per dairy cow per day in the first 3-4 weeks after calving. Sodium bicarbonate reduces the natural B vitamin production in the the rumen and requires special focus on the supply of chlorine, which otherwise passively follows sodium. Buffer increases thirst. Read an article on the topic here.
Yeast: Yeast - or more correctly, live yeast - is a special strain of yeast that has been developed to "work" in the rumen, and specifically promoting the conversion of lactic acid to propionic acid. This means that the yeast stabilizes the pH of the rumen and reduces the risk of acidosis, thereby creating better "working conditions" for the beneficial rumen bacteria. Yeast can, for example, be given to dairy cows throughout the critical transition period in doses between 10 and 120 grams of yeast per cow per day, depending on the product.
Niacin: Niacin is vitamin B3, also known as nicotinic acid. It strengthens the energy balance after calving in dairy cows, reduces the risk of ketosis and stimulates the microflora of the rumen. For prevention is given niacin in an amount of six grams per cow per day (in double dose curative) until 2-3 weeks after calving.
Rumen Protected Choline (RPC): Choline is also a B vitamin. It strengthens the body's ability to mobilize energy from fat deposits and has a preventive effect against fatty liver and ketosis syndrome. Choline generally boosts the cows' metabolism, and in experiments shows impressive effects on the productivity of dairy cows. Choline is given in an amount of 25-30 grams per cow per day. It is generally recommended to start giving choline to dairy cows already in the CloseUp part of the dry period, and at least continue until 2-3 weeks after calving. Choline must be given in a form that can pass through the rumen, i.e. in a rumen-protected form. Read more about the effects of choline.

In most cases, using the above listed feed additives would represent extra costs, whereas their positive effects are limited to a certain part of the production cycle for the given livestock type. Allocating feed additives via complete feeds or total mixed rations would typically mean that the economic advantage of their use is lost or even represents an overall loss giving practice. Using Pitstop^PLUS systems for precision supplementation is the practical and economical solution for targeted and individual allocation of feed additives. Use of precision supplementation is in most cases a prerequisite for obtaining economic benefit from using advanced feed additives.

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